Carnegie Mellon University
Research Projects
Dr. Bonnie L. Youngs
As noted on the first page of this site, my interests lie in developing more appropriate foreign language teaching materials. How to accomplish this goal is, of course, the primary question, but I believe strongly that attention to second language acquisition (SLA) research and proven methodologies can help point the profession in the right direction. Simply writing materials because "it feels right" or because "we've always done it this way" is not sufficient any longer. With the focus now on teaching and learning foreign languages not only for our students' edification, but also to encourage our continued involvement in world economics and politics, substantial and dependable methodologies should be first and foremost.
To this end, I have become interested again in paying attention to what researchers have told us in the academic literature. What follows here are two projects. The first deals with a presentation made at ACTFL 2001 in Washington, D.C. and more recently at the Northeast Conference 2002 in New York City. The "script" of this presentation, Context and Content: Developing meaning-based grammar and vocabulary materials is available on this page. The second project concerns content-based grammar materials that I am developing, to be used in high school or at college or university, for intermediate through advanced levels, depending on the strength of the students in question. Ideas and improvements to these materials are always welcome, and in fact, I hope that your input will establish a center of exchange whereby teachers of all levels can share and borrow materials. I look forward to hearing from you.
Context and Content: Developing meaning-based grammar and vocabulary materials
Bonnie L. Youngs, Carnegie Mellon University
Context: the whole situation, background, or environment relevant to some happening
Content: the main substance or meaning; as, the content of a poem is distinguished from its form
from Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, 1983.
Are Second Language Acquisition research, methodology, and applied research linked to second language (L2) teaching / materials development?
SLA Research
psycholinguistic: processes, characteristics, "systems"
e.g. learners have powers of memory, recognition, association, combining and extending; are intelligent, imaginative, develop learning systems
sociolinguistic: interlanguage, L2 transference, L2 communicative competence; e.g. activities, relationships among learners, classrooms, instructional contexts
neurolinguistic: brain, storage/ retrieval of information, learning
e.g. similar to psycholinguistic, but "how", physically, learning occurs
Methodology 1945+
sentence level
Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)
Grammar Translation Method
communication
Communicative Competence
Functional-notional
grammar teaching obsolete; prioritize interaction beyond sentence level
Simplified Input
Interaction
Comprehensible input
proficiency-related
Comprehensible output
Integrated focus on form/communication; FLES-> secondary-> tertiary
Applied Research: areas of concern to L2 teachers
Grammar
Vocabulary
Content-Based/Enriched Instruction
Whole Language for L2 Teaching
"Creative Personalization"
Proficiency issues
Role of Context
What is GRAMMAR? [Celce-Murcia in Anivan 1990, pp. 203-14]
Possible definitions
1. Aesthetic
2. Prescriptive
3. Social etiquette, "acceptable"
4. Psycholinguistic - unconscious rules
5. Descriptive
Prefers descriptive as point of departure for language learning, with meaning and function
Grammar, meaning and function must be present and interact to achieve communication
What does it mean to "teach grammar"? [McKay 1985]
To teach grammar, shall we...
1. use form or function? both
2. use prescriptive, descriptive or communicative grammar(s)? yes
3. order functions in a syllabus? yes.
Questions:
4. how to order the functions?
5. what types of techniques to draw attention to form and function? e.g. drawings, objects, dialogues, maps
6. how to unify topics by theme, vary content? (N.B. this does not suggest an "over-arching theme", but a contextualization of individual exercises)
Manipulating grammar exercises [Ur 1988]
"[manipulation exercises] give no practice in making meanings with the structure (and therefore incidentally, usually are not very interesting). These exercises have limited usefulness; so we should move on to meaning-based practice...; the exercises are not linked to any situational framework, but cannot be done without comprehension, e.g. give correct verb form for subject (p. 8), then move on to communication /comprehension of meanings" (p. 9)
Summary of grammar issues:
1. general agreement on need for form and function
2. place of meaning (content?, expanded context?) still questionable
3. applied research implications: evaluate the following exercises in light of the grammar discussion
from an ESL workbook (1976)
Exercise #4: Describe the teacher and the class using "is" and "isn't".
Exercise #5: Change these sentences to the plural form. (p. 1)
1. The boy is lost.
2. She is beautiful.
3. The man isn't lost.
4. He is from Asia.
5. The child is thin.
6. The woman isn't rich.
beginning French exercise, Ch. 4
Exercise #1: Students are instructed (in French) to use a vocabulary list to tell what they will buy at the supermarket. They must listen and repeat the items bought by their classmates, and add an item to the list.
Model:
Student #1: Au supermarché, je vais acheter un sachet de chips.
Student #2: Au supermarché, je vais acheter un sachet de chips et une boîte de petits pois.
Exercise #2 (suite from #1)
Avec vos camarades de classe, complétez les phrases. Puis, comparez vos réponses avec les réponses de la classe.
Modèle:
Je mange trop de chocolat.
Je bois trop de boissons sucrées.
How to teach vocabulary? [Morin and Goebel 2001]
They endorse these theories:
direct vocabulary instruction (for word recognition), strategies
add depth to initial, shallow representation
incidental learning does take place
most vocabulary is learned through context; increases learning skills
What is "knowing" a word?
it is knowing the spelling, pronunciation, derivations, syntactic properties, collocations (words they co-occur with), frequency, appropriateness, meaning, shades of meaning
Their study:
two groups of students (N=104)
beginning college Spanish
vocabulary instruction
Control group: Communicative activities
Treatment group: Communicative activities plus semantic mapping (thematic clustering)
Semantic mapping defined
semantic clustering - psychological associations based on semantic and syntactic similarities, e.g. for a group of nouns (frogs, toads, polywogs...)
thematic clustering - any number of parts of speech relating to a particular schema (e.g. frog, pond, swim, hop, green, slippery)
Advantages
students make use of existing schema
activates background knowledge
expands students' existing conceptual network (vs dictionary meaning or even reading in context)
Study Methodology
semantic mapping in whole group (not for control group)
students worked in L2
vocabulary from mapping used in communicative activities
Study Results
learners in both groups knew approximately the same amount of vocabulary
semantic mapping students reported more recall of items than control group
semantic mapping students ranked their familiarity with items more highly
semantic mapping students evidenced vocabulary processing on the semantic level
semantic mapping students scored more highly on thematic grouping of items
authors suggest this type of methodology could increase student motivation to learn outside the target culture
Applied Research/Implications
What type of mapping was used for the French exercises shown above?
Content-Enriched Instruction (CEI) [Ballman 1997]
(see also: Content-Based Instruction (CBI), Crandall & Tucker, Anivan 1990)
A variation of CBI, CEI is for beginning foreign language courses in which cultural, real-world information drives the linguistic, structural, lexical, cognitive, and affective needs of the learner. (174)
Disadvantages of scope and sequences of current textbooks
lower-division = language; perceived purpose of introducing basic target language vocabulary and grammatical structures and to initiate the development of language proficiency
upper-division = content (authentic materials, "substance")
Ballman, in an analysis of 12 current and commonly used first-year college Spanish textbooks, asked:
what is the implementation of content, consisting of cultural information (customs, beliefs, behaviors) and real-world definition
is the content expressed in Spanish or English?
what is the purpose of the content, i.e. to practice language and/or to promote content knowledge?
Findings
little content in these textbooks
the content is not necessarily for the purpose of promoting Spanish language use (i.e. there is no relationship between meaning, form, and future practice of either), especially when they're given in English
authentic materials are rarely used
most authentic materials are 'realia', for aesthetics
content is presented in independent 'boxes', considered optional and not integrated into lesson (i.e. content not used to advance the lesson, students do not need to apply the content to subsequent textbook exercises)
Characteristics of CEI [from Ballman]
1. Each lesson or unit is dedicated to a specific topic or theme. All the content, grammar, and vocabulary relates to it.
2. The cultural and real-world information is presented by both teacher and textbook in the target language. If possible, it is presented via authentic materials.
3. Students use the target language to learn the new information and to relate it to their own lives.
4. The content presented is appropriate to the linguistic, cognitive, and affective needs of the students.
Conclusion [Ballman cites Krahnke 1987]
"Students who are not motivated to learn in a class focused on language itself may acquire the language more willingly when it is used to present content material that the student finds interesting."
Applied Research Implications of CBI/CEI
Evaluate this exercise based on CEI
N.B.1 The unit is on money problems.
N.B.2 The exercise prior to this one is tourism in Paris (the best sites, hotels); the following one deals with weather.
Role play: Two friends comment about people and things.
Model: une pièce confortable/la maison
Student A - C'est une pièce confortable, n'est-ce pas?
Student B - Bien sûr! C'est la pièce la plus confortable de la maison.
sampling of items to be compared during the exercise:
-furniture in the living room
-expensive clothing in the store
-a pretty garden in the city
-nice friends in our group
-intelligent girls in the class
Whole Language in the Foreign Language Classroom [Freeman & Freeman 1994]
Characteristics
1. lessons move logically from the whole to the parts
2. lessons are learner-centered (active construction of knowledge)
3. lessons provide meaning and purpose for the students now (immediacy)
4. lessons engage groups of students in social interaction
5. lessons develop both oral and written language
6. lessons show faith in the learner to expand his/her own potential
The Teacher's Role in Whole Language
1. provide language through content, perhaps through literature
2. provide a meaningful curriculum; organize lessons around relevant themes (to the experiences and concerns of the students)
3. focus on the learner
4. provide opportunities for student to student collaboration
5. provide opportunities for learning in all four skills (R, W, L, S)
The Students will (might?)
1. focus on the central questions
2. use information from different content areas to problem-solve
3. recognize related vocabulary items
4. predict content
5. some educators suggest explicit grammar instruction for whole language instruction
Schwarzer (2001) indicates that for whole language teaching
teachers should avoid the use of decontextualized texts, e.g. word lists for teaching numbers, colors, etc.
tasks should be relevant to the students' world
language activities should build on students' prior knowledge and experience
language is a means to an end
assessment is authentic and appropriate
situational context knowledge is used as a resource
Applied Research Implications
Question: think of textbooks that you use currently; do they reflect any of the guidelines and characteristics of CBI, CEI or Whole Language approaches?
"Creative Personalization" [Krueger 2001]
problem: overpersonalization and underpersonalization in beginning and intermediate language courses
In class/in compositions for homework:
how many times can we ask and answer questions about our family members?
does anybody really care?
do other students really listen to the answers?
what happens when students are "known" for their replies? (i.e. does student "X" always say the same thing...?
how much information is actually shared with native speakers about our families, for example?
Solution: (p. 19) teachers may reshape traditionally personalized speaking and writing activities in language courses, promoting "one degree of critical distance" between learners and the content of their writing and speech.
Sample revisions of traditional tasks
Students have practiced narrating events using the present tense and several pronominal verbs.
Standard personalization: Describe your daily routine, from morning to bedtime.
Creative personalization: Observe a person that you do not know, in the library, the student union, at a café... Focus on one simple object associated with this person: a pen, hat, cup. Write about this person's typical day, constructing the importance of this object throughout the day's activities.
Advantages of this "twist"
1. it may smooth the transition from traditional "language" to traditional "content" courses as we foster a spirit of reflection, analysis, and creativity
2. the traditional rift between language and content courses may become less intense
3. difficulties of form and accuracy are expected to have been ironed out before advanced level; this "twist" may facilitate advanced self-expression
4. since language learning continues beyond the first two or three years of instruction, it is logical that form be addressed at advanced levels
5. more attention may be paid to the "symbiosis" between form and meaning
6. by finding their own "personal" voice, students may more easily develop a scholarly voice
Proficiency Revisited
- language learning continues past the first two or three years of instruction [Krueger 2001]
- Tschirner (1996)
the scope, the actual amount of grammar introduced, has not changed significantly from the early 1970s to the 1990s
the sequencing of topics has changed to accommodate the functional perspective of the 1980s and 1990s
most grammars still are grammars of the written language, but are aimed at imitating spoken language
studies have shown that students reach Intermediate-Mid OPI levels after three and four semesters of language study
acquisition orders reinforce OPI descriptions of speech and vice versa, according to research
these levels and orders indicate that we cannot expect students to have "mastered" all the grammar by end of intermediate year, and be "proficient" at an advanced level at the beginning of third year study
Tschirner suggests that intensive and detailed grammar teaching continue into the third year by introducing at each level of instruction the grammar structures that, in general, are at least partially controlled at the next higher proficiency level (e.g. teach moderately advanced structures during end of intermediate year)
The Role of Context
Context: the whole situation, background, or environment relevant to some happening
Question: Which approaches/theories encourage attention to contextualized language learning?
Review: Why is the sample exercise on the superlative not sufficient in terms of its contextualization?
How does context play a role in your teaching?
What steps can you take immediately to increase contextualization, so that your students might benefit from the methodologies and approaches described in this presentation?
Textbook evaluations, mid 1980s to mid 1990s
-Recall the evaluation of Spanish textbooks by Ballman, regarding content (CEI) [contained little cultural content]
-Lally (1998) evaluated 6 French beginning level textbooks to see if assessments made in Byrnes (1989) and Walz (1989) had been undertaken
Definitions of textbook exercises
drills: require no/limited context, no communication
forced-choice (fc): context required, no communication
communicative: context and communication required
Findings
drill activities still constitute a substantial portion of textbook activities, 30%
communicative activities are of a higher percentage than drills in only two of six textbooks
forced-choice activities (require that the context be understood for student to be successful) have increased, but seem to be in place of communicative activities
only two of six texts include a process-oriented approach to L2 writing (not the same two as above)
Question: what does this limited research say about the state of publishing/textbook authoring in the 1990s?
Student perceptions of teaching methods/materials
Yamada & Moeller (2001): meaning-based penpal projects increase student motivation
Liaw (2001): using a reader-response approach, students of English went beyond simple comprehension of literature and actively constructed meaning
Spodark (2001): a web-based lesson on French fashion engaged students in technology learning and current fashion
Barnett (1999): students are co-creators of the course, taking responsibility for their learning
Conrad (1999): college students (1st and 4th semesters) (N=454)
prefer teachers to correct writing mistakes and speaking mistakes
think group repetition is helpful for pronunciation
prefer not using any English in the classroom
like small group work
like hearing stories about L2 culture
think understanding grammar is useful for learning
believe that time is well spent when the focus is authentic communication
can be tolerant of making their own mistakes (moreso 4th semester than 1st semester)
do not prefer a native speaker as their teacher
do not prefer structured activities to more open ones
in 4th semester prefer unrehearsed conversation
in 1st semester are favorable to written exercises in workbooks
rank the importance of skills as: listening comprehension, speaking, reading, writing
place a high value on language activities of a communicative nature
HOWEVER: only 16.3 % of the students indicated an intention to continue language study beyond a fourth semester
Conrad (p. 499) suggests creating a more effective language learning experience, thereby attaining more meaningful, more useful, and more lasting levels of L2 proficiency, in order to encourage students to continue studying foreign languages.
Question: Which of the preferences that students express are linked to the guidelines of either CBI, CEI, or whole language instruction? Do materials currently available on the market reflect these preferences?
Innovations for the 2000s
according to the research, we have a demonstrated need for different types of materials
which elements should be included?
what might a grammar/vocabulary text for the intermediate-advanced levels look like?
Communiquer (function)
La Vie de tous les jours (theme)
Travail préliminaire: parler de soi-même
Partie I: La Lecture
Thèmes: la routine, la famille, la maison, la femme
Rappel: les auteurs africains francophones
Pour commencer
Rappel: la culture et le vocabulaire des textes africains
Vocabulaire
Rappel: les adjectifs possessifs
Rappel: une biographie, Nafissatou Diang Diallo
Rappel: le Sénégal (avec une carte de Rufisque et Dakar)
Rappel: le vocabulaire littéraire
Lecture: l'extrait de Awa, Diallo
Sujets de discussion: Exercices orals
Sujets de composition: Exercices écrits
Recherches personnelles: recherche sur le rôle de la femme, un pays africain, l'immigration francophone
Partie II: La Grammaire
L'Imparfait
La Négation
Les Verbes pronominaux
Les Adjectifs
Les Pronoms possessifs
Advantages to an application of this methodology
contextualized
content-based/content-enriched
family strife, current life experiences of students
vocabulary, grammar learned within the context of the reading/theme
authentic reading
language issues explained using the lexical items of the reading
varied activity types, student groupings
a recycling of grammar (if one adheres to the current scope and sequence of beginning level texts); or, a proficiency-oriented approach given the skills that we are asking students to use, e.g. in this chapter
"creative personalization" is used (talk about Awa, not solely about yourself)
personalized student research projects
four skills approach, process-oriented writing can be incorporated
Disadvantages to the application of this methodology
all students will not be interested in every theme/topic (but is this different from any other textbook that we use?)
all teachers will not be interested in teaching every theme/topic; "if I don't want to teach a particular chapter, my students will 'miss out' on that chapter's grammar"
some teachers could find it difficult to supplement the content; e.g. we don't have at our disposal overheads on Sénégal and francophone writers
it doesn't fit in with the perception that we have of a "grammar textbook"
etc.
Conclusion, ask yourself:
Why is teaching grammar, vocabulary, meaning, context, and content separately not sufficient?
context + content = meaning, derived from form and vocabulary
Use the guidelines established throughout the presentation to assess the materials you use; are you achieving what you think you are in your language classroom?
Do we have to do it on our own? Other than writing our own materials, our only other options are to share materials, or to demand more innovative/applied research-oriented texts from publishers.
Copyright Dr. Bonnie L. Youngs, 2001
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